Tibetan Thangka

Definition

Thangka (唐卡) (also called Tangga (唐嘎) or Tangka (唐喀)), a Tibetan term meaning “scroll painting,” refers to religious artworks mounted on brocade for worship. These distinctive Tibetan paintings depict diverse subjects including history, politics, culture, and social life, with most surviving works representing Tibetan Buddhism (藏传佛教) or Bon Religion (苯教) traditions.

Artistic Features

Thangkas are celebrated for their:

• Distinctive ethnic characteristics
• Rich religious symbolism
• Unique artistic style
• Vibrant depictions of Buddhist realms

Pigments

Traditional thangkas use sacred natural materials:
Mineral pigments:

• Gold
• Silver
• Pearl
• Agate (玛瑙)
• Coral (珊瑚)
• Turquoise (松石)
• Malachite (孔雀石)
• Cinnabar (朱砂)

Plant-based pigments:

• Saffron (藏红花)
• Rhubarb (大黄)
• Indigo (蓝靛)

These premium materials ensure thangkas retain luminous colors for centuries, earning recognition as:

• “Treasures of Chinese ethnic painting”
• Tibet’s “encyclopedia”
• Priceless intangible cultural heritage (非物质文化遗产)

Production Process

Creating a thangka involves rigorous, multi-step rituals:

1. Pre-painting ceremonies (绘前仪式)
2. Canvas preparation (制作画布)
3. Composition sketching (构图起稿)
4. Color application (着色染色)
5. Line definition (勾线定型)
6. Gold/silver detailing (铺金描银)
7. Eye-opening ceremony (开眼)
8. Mounting and consecration (缝裱开光)

Completion requires 6 months to over 10 years, following strict religious scriptures and master guidance.

This sacred art form embodies the spiritual essence and artistic brilliance of Tibetan culture.

Academic Perspectives on Origins

Scholars hold four main theories about thangka’s origins:

1. Indian Buddhist Origin Theory
   Proposed by Italian scholar Giuseppe Tucci, this theory suggests thangka derived from India’s ancient religious cloth paintings called “Pata (钵陀)”. Key evidence includes:

• Similar use of cotton canvas
• Identical proportions for mandala (曼荼罗)  and Buddha

2. Central Chinese Influence Theory
   Chinese scholar Xie Jisheng argues in The Origins of Thangka that:

“Thangka did not originate from India, but evolved alongside Han Chinese scroll paintings from the Han-Tang to Song-Yuan periods. It emerged in Dunhuang (敦煌), a hub of Tibetan-Han exchange, developing from Tibetan banner paintings along Buddhist artistic trajectories.”

3. Tibetan Imperial Origin Theory
   Recorded in the 5th Dalai Lama’s Śākyamuni·Crystal Mirror:

“King Songtsen Gampo (松赞干布) painted the goddess Palden Lhamo (吉祥天母) with his own nose blood. During the Tsalpa (蔡巴) period, the Guozhu Xihuo Living Buddha (果竹西活佛) enshrined this painting inside a statue.” This is the mainstream Tibetan academic view.

4. Bon Religion Development Theory
   Thangka evolved from portable cloth paintings used by Bon (苯教) priests for missionary work, later adopted by Buddhism.

Painting Themes

Known as the “Encyclopedia of Tibetan Culture,” thangka covers:

Religious Themes

• Mandala (曼荼罗)
• Jataka tales
• Assembly trees
• Guru portraits
• Buddha biographies
• Deities (Buddhas (佛), Bodhisattvas (菩萨), Yidams (本尊), Protectors (护法))
• Dakinis (空行母)
• Arhats
• Wheel of Life
• Western Pure Land

Secular Themes

• Historical events
• Folktales
• Astronomy/calendar systems
• Tibetan medicine (藏医药学)

Composition Characteristics

Most common are Buddha-image thangkas featuring:

1. Central deity depiction
2. Surrounding narrative scenes (clockwise from upper right)
3. Flexible spacetime representation
4. Non-perspective figure scaling
5. Balanced, intricate layouts

Each thangka typically presents a complete story through symbolic visual language unrestricted by physical laws.

Thangka Art Schools

Development of Thangka Styles

Thangka art was initially influenced by Nepalese style (尼泊尔风格) in the 7th century AD during massive temple construction. From then until the 15th century, works by Nepalese and Tibetan artists were collectively called the Nepalese School (尼泊尔画派). Later schools included:

• Qigang School (齐岗画派) during Tsongkhapa’s era
• Miantang School (勉唐画派) and Qinze School (钦则画派) in the 15th century
• Karma Gadri School (噶玛嘎孜画派) in the 16th century

Major Thangka Schools

Nepalese School (尼泊尔画派)

Dominant during 11th-13th centuries after Princess Bhrikuti (尺尊公主) brought Nepalese artists to Tibet. Characteristics:

• Warm color palette
• Prominent central deity
• Guardians arranged in neat surrounding grids
• Simplified figures with rigid postures
• Light clothing with heavy ornaments

Qigang School (齐岗画派)

Founded by Yadui Qiwugangba (雅堆·齐乌岗巴), prevalent in 13th century Ü-Tsang (卫藏) region. Features:

• Inherited Tibetan and Nepalese styles
• Reduced central deity prominence
• Scroll-pattern backgrounds
• Detailed fingers/toes depiction
• Flowing postures and garments

Miantang School (勉唐画派)

Originated during the Tsangpa period, flourished until Ganden Phodrang (甘丹颇章) era. Founded by Mianla Dünzhujiacuo (勉拉·顿珠嘉措) who authored The Wish-Fulfilling Jewel of Iconometry. Characteristics:

• Strict iconometric standards
• Emphasis on precise lines
• Bright, lively colors
• Local landscapes/floral motifs
• Gold outline techniques

Reached peak during 17th-18th centuries with masterpieces in Potala Palace (布达拉宫), Norbulingka (罗布林卡), and major monasteries. Declined post-1960s despite preservation efforts.

Qinze School (钦则画派)

Emerging mid-15th century in Tsang (后藏) and Lhoka (山南) regions, founded by Kunga Gangui Qinzeqinmo (贡嘎岗堆·钦则钦莫). Features:

• Large central deities (Indian-Nepalese tradition)
• Ordered surrounding figures
• Incorporation of Han landscape techniques
• Specialization in wrathful deities
• Dynamic yet balanced compositions
• Rich contrasting colors
• Exquisite mandala designs

Karma Gadri School (噶玛嘎孜画派)

Originated 16th century in Kham (康区), centered in Garze (甘孜), Derge (德格), and Chamdo (昌都). Founded by Namkha Tashi (南喀扎西). Characteristics:

• Combination of Indian, Han and Tibetan styles
• Meticulous brushwork
• Blue-green landscape techniques
• Three masters (“Three Tashis”):

Choje Tashi (却吉扎西): Known for mineral pigments

Kaxiu Karma Tashi (噶旭噶玛扎西): Innovative styles

• Later masters like Langkarje (郎卡杰) of Luhuo created exquisite miniature thangkas

New Miantang School (新勉画派)

Developed by Tsangpa Chöying Gyatso (藏巴·曲英嘉措) during the 5th Dalai Lama’s reign. Became the “standard style” through:

• Strict adherence to Iconometric Sutra
• Integration of:

Miantang’s color vibrancy

Karma Gadri’s landscape techniques

Qinze’s dynamic figures

Characteristics:

1. Thick base colors
2. “Orchid-leaf” drapery lines
3. Decorative mountains/clouds
4. Subtle skin tone gradations
5. Rich edge-line rhythms

These schools collectively represent the evolution of Tibetan sacred art, blending indigenous traditions with cross-cultural influences.

Main Categories

• (1) Embroidered Thangka. Made with various colored silk threads. This type of Thangka is durable and not easily damaged.
• (2) Kesi Thangka. Using the “continuous warp and discontinuous weft” technique, different colored weft threads are interwoven with the warp threads at the required pattern areas, creating a three-dimensional effect similar to carving or woodcutting.
• (3) Brocade Thangka. The base material is mostly satin, with weft threads composed of various colored silk threads, woven in an interlocking pattern to form the desired designs, images, and scenes.
• (4) Appliqué Thangka, also known as Patchwork Thangka. Various colored satins are cut into shapes (such as figures, birds, animals, trees, pavilions, flowers, etc.) and then glued onto the Thangka base fabric.
• (5) Painted Thangka. Mostly painted on paper, cloth, cowhide, or sheepskin, and then made into a Thangka. Its basic painting technique is similar to that of murals. In later developments, some painted Thangkas were carved into printing blocks to create “Printed Thangkas.”
• (6) Pearl Thangka. Pearl Thangka is a rare and special type of Thangka. The Tara Pearl Thangka in Shannan Changzhu Temple (山南昌珠寺) is made of tens of thousands of pearls and artistic stones, with an elegant and graceful design, and is extremely valuable.

Hand-painted Thangkas are further divided into:

Sources of Pigments

• Earth Pigments: White earth, Nanjian (南碱), Vajra earth, red earth.
• Stone Pigments: Silver ore, yellow copper ore, mica, lapis lazuli, malachite, cinnabar, hawksbill stone, ochre, etc.
• Water Pigments: Huangdan (黄丹), Sangzhu Re (桑珠热), indigo, iron indigo, etc.
• Fire Pigments: Ink, arsenic, realgar, etc.
• Wood Pigments: Red tree, gold tree, birch, hard tree, purple stalk, etc.
• Grass Pigments: Lishi grass (力士草), chicken claw goldthread (鸡爪黄连), wolf poison grass (狼毒草), amaranth, etc.
• Flower Pigments: Wild chrysanthemum, birch flower, primrose, etc.
• Bone Pigments: Clam, conch, dragon bone, etc.
• Gemstone Pigments: Gold, silver, Dzi bead (天珠), coral, turquoise, etc.

• White: White earth, Nanjian (南碱), Vajra earth, conch, mica, etc.
• Yellow: Arsenic, realgar, Lishi grass (力士草), chicken claw goldthread (鸡爪黄连), gold tree, wild chrysanthemum, birch bark, etc.
• Red: Cinnabar, amaranth, red earth, etc.
• Blue: Lapis lazuli, indigo, hard tree, etc.
• Green: Copper rust, malachite, turquoise, etc.
• Black: Soot, coal ore, etc.
• Purple: Sangzhu Re (桑珠热), hawksbill stone, ochre, purple tree, etc.

• Mineral Pigments: Commonly used are Renbu White Earth (Renbu Bai Tu, 仁布白土, white), cinnabar (red), lapis lazuli (stone blue), malachite (stone green), realgar/realgarite (yellow), orpiment (orange).
• Plant Pigments: Commonly used are flower blue, rouge, etc. The production process of plant pigments is simpler compared to that of mineral pigments. First, collect flowers, wood, or bark, wash and soak or boil them to obtain colored liquid. After evaporation, the pigments are made into color pills.

Painting Process

1. Selecting the Canvas: The canvas is usually a light-colored fabric, not too thick or stiff, as a thick and hard canvas can easily cause the pigment to peel off and crack. The most suitable canvas is finely woven pure white silk or cotton cloth. Plain white silk without patterns is also very appropriate. For large Thangkas, several pieces of canvas may need to be sewn together with very fine stitches. The seam between the sewn pieces must not interfere with the integrity of the Thangka’s image.
2. Fixing the Canvas: Sew the canvas along its four edges onto a thin wooden frame (the frame is made of branches about the thickness of an ordinary pencil). Tighten the canvas on the thin wooden frame, and then securely bind the frame to a large easel called “Tangzhuo” (唐卓), using sturdy ropes in a zigzag pattern to tie the four sides of the thin wooden frame to the four sides of the large easel.
3. Applying Glue and Polishing: First, apply a thin layer of glue to the canvas as the “base color,” and then let it dry. The purpose of applying the light glue is to prevent the canvas from absorbing and seeping in the pigments; it also prevents the pigments from “spreading” on the canvas and ensures that the pigments retain their original colors when applied. After that, apply a thin layer of paste mixed with lime. Once the second layer of coating is dry, lay the canvas on a flat surface such as a wooden board or a table, and repeatedly rub the canvas surface with a smooth object like a piece of glass, shell, or round stone until the fabric texture is no longer visible.
4. Correcting the Canvas: Adjust the warp and weft.
5. Drawing Guide Lines: Draw the main positioning lines, including the border lines, center vertical line, two diagonal lines, and any other contours that need to be marked.
6. Sketching: After sketching the outline of the Buddha image with charcoal (called the “white drawing”), trace it with ink to form the ink lines (the ink line sketch, also known as the “black drawing”).
7. Coloring: Apply colors to different elements such as ponds, rocks, hills, and clouds according to the depiction in the painting. Apply only one color at a time, starting with lighter colors and then moving to darker ones. When painting Buddha images, start with the lotus seat, then the decorations, and finally the body of the Buddha. For the background, also follow the sequence of lighter colors first and then darker ones.
8. Outlining: After completing the aforementioned parts, use gold to draw patterns on the clothing (these gold patterns are called “gold drawings”). Various colored lines are also used to outline other decorations and parts of the painting.
9. Detailing the Face: The final and most important step in the Thangka painting process is detailing the facial features, including the eyes, lips, nostrils, fingernails, and toenails. The success of a Thangka often depends on whether the facial features are well executed. Therefore, some veteran artists consider the skill of detailing the facial features a closely guarded secret, passed down through a single lineage and not easily revealed to others. According to traditional customs, a good day and time must be chosen for this step. Properly detailing the facial features can bring the painting to life, like the finishing touch on a dragon’s eye, and signifies the completion of the Thangka.

Thangka Mounting Process

1. Mounting the Border: First, a border called “tooth border” (6 vja-dmar-ser, meaning “red and yellow rainbow,” referring to the main colors of red and yellow in the tooth border, though the color combination is actually quite free and not limited to these colors; there are even cases where no tooth border is used) was mounted around the painting. The tooth border comes in various types, such as red and yellow brocade tooth border, moon-white gold-thread five-color tooth border, red gold-thread tooth border, red and yellow green foreign brocade tooth border, red and yellow gold-thread tooth border, red gold-thread tooth border, and longevity lantern brocade tooth border. These multi-layered and multi-colored borders are called rainbows in Tibetan. Sometimes a single-layer brocade border is used, known as the large tooth border, which is a simplified form. Outside the tooth border is the main border. The seam between the tooth border and the main border is sewn with a thin white thread, and the outermost edge of the main border is also sewn with a white thread or a red and white thread. These two lines have almost become a hallmark of the Thangka mounting in the palace.
2. Dividing the Border into Sections: The border is divided into four parts: the top pool (5 gnam), the bottom jade (2 sa), the left side (4 gyon-pa), and the right side (3 g-yas-pa). The border is equivalent to the mounting work in Chinese painting, and the materials used are very particular. There are red and blue foreign brocade borders, plain foreign brocade, mixed-color brocade, Western lotus gold-thread satin borders, dragon-embroidered stone-blue gold-thread borders, and gold-thread satin, among others. The more important the Thangka, the more precious the materials used. For Thangkas with auspicious meanings for birthdays, large red cloud-dragon gold-thread satin borders, stone-blue longevity character satin, or large red longevity character satin are used for flat mounting to highlight the theme. For example, the Thangka depicting the lineage of the Sixth Panchen Lama was mounted with such materials. In standard Tibetan Thangkas, a piece of satin is sewn in the center of the bottom border. This satin, which can be square or rectangular in shape, is called Thangka door (1 thang-sgo) in Tibetan and is a signature decorative element of Thangkas. Except for those intentionally imitating the Tibetan style, Thangkas in the palace generally do not use this decoration. The Thangkas from Tibet that were stored in the palace were often re-mounted with palace materials due to their rough original mounting, so some “barbarian paintings” in the palace have Thangka mounting that is completely consistent with that of the palace Thangkas.
3. Attaching the Scroll Rod and the Header Rod: In Tibetan, both rods are called thang shing, meaning “Thangka wood” or “Thangka rod.” However, in practice, there are clear differences between the two. The scroll rod (10) is attached to the lower end of the bottom jade, cylindrical in shape, slightly protruding beyond the side borders of the Thangka, with an axle head (11 thang tog) installed at the end of the rod. The header rod (9) is attached to the upper end of the top pool, in the form of a wide flat or flat round wooden piece, with both ends flush with or slightly protruding beyond the sides of the top pool. The Tibetan style involves wrapping the ends with leather, which is rarely adopted in the palace. The materials used for the scroll rod and header rod in the palace Thangkas include white sandalwood, rosewood, and fir, with the first two being the most precious. The craftsmanship of the axle is also very meticulous, with materials such as copper, silver, rosewood, copper-plated gold, and silver-plated gold. As decorations for the scroll rod, rosewood axle heads are mostly plain mushroom-shaped; silver and copper axle heads often feature engraved flowers or Aoqili (Mongolian for “vajra”) patterns, or are decorated with small beads of coral, turquoise, pearls, and lapis lazuli.
4. Adding the Buddha Curtain: A layer of Buddha curtain (thang-vdzar, or translated as “Thangka curtain”) is sewn below the header rod of the Thangka, extending to the scroll rod, made of five-colored hada or five-colored brocade. Unlike Tibetan Buddha curtains, which are often composed of two or three overlapping pieces, the soft and thin Buddha curtains in the palace are usually made of a single piece of fabric, with few cases of being divided into several pieces. The Buddha curtain serves both as a decoration and as an important protective element for the Thangka. Outside the Buddha curtain, two ribbons are sewn, hanging down to the scroll rod, with bird-beak-shaped ends, hence the name “bird mouth” (bya-kha), similar to the “scare swallow” in Chinese painting mounting.
5. Attaching Hooks and Ribbons: Two hooks are nailed at the upper end of the header rod, each with an iron ring made of cast iron. In the Qing Palace, gold-plated iron rings with beads or silver-plated iron rings with beads were commonly used, with a flower ribbon tied to each ring. Sometimes a Goryeo paper tag is also tied to the ring, with content slightly simpler than that on the white silk tag on the back of the Thangka. When the Thangka is hung for worship, the two ribbons are tied together to serve as a hanging rope. After the Thangka is rolled up, the two flower ribbons are used to tie the Thangka tightly, with a length sufficient to wrap around the rolled-up Thangka twice. The ribbons are mostly woven from coarse hemp threads in five colors, which are not easy to loosen after being tied, durable, and colorful, matching the colors of the Thangka, becoming one of the characteristics of the palace Thangkas. The use of red silk ribbons is also quite common. The use of thick threads as hanging ropes is more common in Thangkas from Tibet.

Consecration and Veneration